Lucy Parsons & The Anarchist Movement

"The philosophy of anarchism... has but one infallible, unchangeable motto, 'Freedom'," declared Lucy Parsons. "Freedom to discover any truth, freedom to develop, to live naturally and fully." Anarchism has a long and passionate history of struggles for liberation. The early anarchist movements in the United States coincided with a series of worldwide anarchist and socialist struggles fighting to free humanity from the shackles of capitalism, the state, and authority in all of its forms. Anarchism was the cause for which the Haymarket martyrs gave their lives, and the ideology for which Lucy Parsons dedicated much of hers.

While the terms are used interchangeably, "anarchy" and "anarchism" can embody very different meanings. At face value, "anarchy" is often interpreted as simply no government, lawlessness, disorder, and chaos. "Anarchism", however, is a well-developed and expansive ideology that seeks to empower individuals and communities to live freely and cooperatively, and is rooted in a rich history of social movements. Anarchism is "the very finest thing," wrote Alexander Berkman, "that humanity has ever thought of." A more nuanced understanding of these concepts reveals that both are about emancipation.

In praxis, anarchism can most easily be understood as anti-authoritarian socialism, or the libertarian wing of the socialist movement. It is "the confluence of the two great currents," explains German anarchist Rudolf Rocker. "Socialism will be free or it will not be at all. In its recognition of this fact lies the genuine and profound justification of Anarchism." Albert Parsons understood this as well: "There are two distinct phases of socialism in the labor movement throughout the world today. One is known as anarchism, without political government or authority; the other is known as state socialism or paternalism, or governmental control of everything." Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin argued that anarchism must embrace stateless socialism: "Freedom without socialism is privilege and injustice; socialism without freedom is slavery and brutality". Another term for anarchism is libertarian socialism.

"Every anarchist is a socialist, but not every socialist is necessarily an anarchist." —Adolph Fischer

Anarchism encompasses several distinct schools of thought, with theories on how it can be achieved or applied varying widely. Anarcho-syndicalism seeks the abolition of capitalism and the state, advocating for general strikes and decentralized worker-led federations or syndicates as a means of achieving these goals. Anarcho-communism, a closely related philosophy, calls for the elimination of both the state and private property (although not personal property). Lucy Parsons identified as an anarcho-communist, though her work was primarily focused on anarcho-syndicalist union activism. Anarcha-feminism is another important discipline within the movement. It integrates feminist principles with anti-authoritarian politics, emphasizing the need to dismantle both patriarchy and state power. Other branches include Christian anarchism, mutualism, collectivism, individualism, platformism, green anarchism, social ecology, and beyond. Each of these approaches offers a different perspective on creating a more equitable and free society.

Anarchists have always been unique, in that they call for a social revolution, instead of a political one. Political revolutions replace one master for another, while social revolutions aim for the permanent abolition of all rulers. The former typically results in the transfer of state power from one ruling elite to another, without altering the fundamental structures of authority and hierarchy. This was evident in the Russian Revolution, for example, where the Bolsheviks, under Lenin, sought to replace the Tsarist autocracy with a government led by a revolutionary vanguard. While the specifics of governance changed, the underlying power structures of authority and control remained intact, which anarchists criticize as a mere substitution of one ruler for another.

In contrast, social revolutions call for the permanent abolition of all forms of domination and coercion, not simply changing who holds power. For anarchists, a true revolution involves dismantling the structures of domination that permeate all aspects of society—this includes not only the state but also capitalism, patriarchy, racism, and other forms of social and economic inequality. A social revolution, therefore, is not just about taking power from the elites but about radically restructuring society in a way that eliminates all forms of domination and coercion, creating a world based on mutual aid, voluntary cooperation, and direct democracy.

"Government is for slaves; free men govern themselves!" —Albert Parsons

At the core of anarchist theory "is the desire to free society of all political and social coercive institutions which stand in the way of the development of a free humanity", writes Rudolph Rocker. Anarchists argue that the state, by its very nature, is a despotic institution that enforces the will of a ruling class over the rest of society. "Anarchy is the negation of force; the elimination of all authority in social affairs," stated Albert Parsons, "it is the denial of the right of domination of one man over another. It is the diffusion of rights, of power, of duties, equally and freely among all the people."

Anarchists believe that most of society's inequities, violence, and conflict stem from unequal power relations between rulers and ruled, masters and servants, bosses and workers, men and women, and so on. Anarchists seek to identify these power dynamics and challenge their legitimacy. If they cannot be justified then they should be considered illegitimate and subverted.

Noam Chomsky explains it best: "At a very general level we should be concerned with any structure of authority and domination and hierarchy that exists—any, from whether it's inside the family, to international affairs. And we should question it. We should ask: is it legitimate? Does it have a justification? The burden of proof is on authority... Not many kinds of authority can be justified, and if they can't we should be moving to dismantle them and to create a more free and just society."(1)

Prominent anarchists in history include figures such as William Godwin, who was the first person to write about anarchist ideas in his 1793 book Political Justice. Godwin was married to renowned feminist Mary Wollstonecraft, and their daughter, Mary Shelley, authored Frankenstein. Pierre Joseph Proudhon coined the term "anarchism" in its modern political sense, and is the first self-identified anarchist; his 1840 book What Is Property? was a pioneering publication. His work was translated into multiple languages and distributed all over the world. Mikhail Bakunin was an enormously influential Russian anarchist and key rival of Marx's "dictatorship of the proletariat" philosophy, which he regarded as inherently authoritarian. He played a crucial role in evolving anarchist thinking away from more individualist tendencies and toward social anarchism (or what he called collectivism). Peter Kropotkin was the father of anarcho-communism and the leading anarchist intellectual of his day, his books The Conquest of Bread, Mutual Aid, Fields, Factories, and Workshops, and Memoirs of a Revolutionist are seminal works. Leo Tolstoy was the most famous proponent of Christian anarchism, his book The Kingdom of God Is Within You had a profound influence on Mahatma Gandhi.

Emma Goldman was the preeminent anarcha-feminist of her time, her books Living My Life volumes 1 and 2 provide an astounding overview of anarchist history during its golden age. "Anarchism", she stated, "...stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion, the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property, the liberation from the shackles and restraint of government." Alongside Goldman, Voltairine de Cleyre was one of the most heralded anarchist-feminists of the age. She advocated for nonviolent revolution and for the abolition patriarchy. Meanwhile, Lucy Parsons and her comrade, Lizzy Swank Holmes, were early pioneers of anarchist feminism and dedicated to revolutionary labor activism.

Goldman's comrade, Alexander Berkman, is one of the most storied figures within the movement. His periodical The Blast was widely respected, and his book Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist is essential reading for anyone interested in anarchist history. It's also one of the first books to frankly discuss homosexuality, long before queer liberation movements emerged. "Anarchist writings about homosexuality," writes Michael Bronski in his book A Queer History of the United States, were "a radical break from most thinking in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. They argued that sexuality is natural and positive, that sex can be solely about pleasure and, if consensual, should not be the subject of any laws. These basic precepts about sexuality, and homosexuality, that are present today in the LGBT movement—both its liberatory and civil rights sides—find their roots in anarchist thinking." Goldman's publication Mother Earth was one of the first to address issues of sexuality, love, and the societal norms surrounding them.

"Anarchism means freedom to the soul as to the body,— in every aspiration, every growth." — Voltairine de Cleyre

Other notable anarchists include: Max Stirner, Johann Most, Gustav Landauer, Louise Michel, Errico Malatesta, Kate Austin, August Spies, Adolph Fischer, George Engel, Louis Lingg, Albert Parsons, Michael Schwab, Oscar Neebe, Samuel Fielden, Max Nettlau, Rudolf Rocker, Ricardo Flores Magón, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, Syusui Kotoku, Leah Feldman, Benjamin Tucker, Mollie Steimer, Marie Louise Berneri, Buenaventura Durruti, Federica Montseny, Augustin Souchy, Nestor Makhno, Luisa Capetillo, Dorothy Day, Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin, Kuwasi Balagoon, Murray Bookchin, Daniel Guérin, Paul Avrich, Noam Chomsky, Michael Albert, David Graeber, Ashanti Alston, Natasha Notkin, Esther and Sam Dolgoff, and countless others.

Historically, anarchist struggles have manifested around the world. Some examples include the First International (1864), also known as International Workingmen's Association (IWA), the Paris Commune (1871), the Haymarket Affair (1886), the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920), the Russian Revolution and the Makhnovist Movement (1917-1921), the Kronstadt Rebellion (1921), the Argentine anarcha-feminist movement (1890-onward), the Cuban anarcho-syndicalist struggles (late 19th century through the Cuban Revolution), and the Uruguay anarchist movement (which became robust in the early 20th century). Anarchists have also played a crucial role in uprisings across France, Italy, Germany, United Kingdom, Turkey, Greece, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Portugal, Nicaragua, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Korea, China, Japan, India, Algeria, Kenya, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Phillipines, and beyond. Indeed, anarchist movements have occurred in nearly every country on Earth.

"But we anarchists do not want to emancipate the people; we want the people to emancipate themselves." —Errico Malatesta

The most significant and influential anarchist struggle, however, remains the Spanish Revolution and Civil War (1936-1939). In Catalonia, Aragón, and Andalusia, for example, workers took control of factories, farms, and transport networks, organizing them as decentralized, worker-managed collectives. They challenged traditional gender roles, formed militias, and eliminated money and markets in some regions. Buenaventura Durruti, Francisco Ascaso, and Federica Montseny are among the most revered anarchists from this period. Famed author and socialist George Orwell also battled alongside the anarchists (the CNT and FAI) in Spain (he wrote about it in his 1938 memoir Homage to Catalonia). Anarchist ideas were so widely disseminated, embraced, and fought for during this time, that many believed a worldwide social revolution was looming.

Anarchism's popularity waned sharply, however, after the Spanish Civil War and the rise of fascism around the world. In the United States, anti-communist red scares also targeted anarchists. As the state cracked down on radical politics, anarchist organizations and activities became more clandestine, further isolating the movement. Many of history's most prominent anarchists had also passed away by this time. While anarchists continued to organize around the world, the golden age of anarchism was fleeting. "Anarchism is a dead issue in American life today", stated Lucy Parsons in the 1930s.

Since the heyday of anarchism and the age of Lucy Parsons, the anarchist movement has slowly made a resurgence. In the 1960s, many anarchists in the US participated in the civil rights movement. This also begat the era of Black anarchism, directly inspired by the legacy of Lucy Parsons and preached by figures such Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin, Kuwasi Balagoon, and Greg Jackson. In the 1970s and 80s the anarcho-punk movement arose, initiated by artists such as Crass, Conflict, Subhumans, Chumbawamba, and others, which spawned the growth of zines, info shops, and independent media, and became a catalyst for anarchist struggles around the world.

By the 1990s, the anarchist movement had become a powerful force on the worldstage again. The 1994 Zapatista uprising in Chiapas, Mexico embraced anarchist and libertarian-Marxist principles while working in solidarity with left-wing organizations globally. A few years later, anti-WTO, anti-capitalist, and global justice demonstrations in Seattle, Washington and Cancún, Mexico were organized in large part by anarchists employing affinity group tactics and other anarchist organizing models. In the years to follow, anti-war movements in the San Francisco Bay Area, New York City, and other major cities would utilize similar methods to protest the US invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq.

In the 21st century, anarchists also played a significant role in the anti-austerity protests in Greece, widely participated in the Occupy movements worldwide, and joined the Black Lives Matter and George Floyd protests in the US. In 2023, Punks for Palestine emerged as an international grassroots movement in response to Israel's ongoing genocide in Gaza and the West Bank. The largest current anarchist movement, however, remains in Spain among labor unions, where the CGT and the CNT claim over 100,000 members. There are also many modern progressives that do not necessarily identify as anarchists, due to negative connotations and misunderstandings about the terminology (or because they do not find the labels useful for organizing), but nevertheless embrace anarchist principles such as horizontalism, voluntary association, decentralized decision-making, and prefigurative politics.

Anarchism today encompasses a more comprehensive analysis of power and inequality, recognizing that all struggles for liberation must be intersectional. Class, race, gender, sexuality, environmental justice, climate change, and all forms of oppression and plight which are interconnected must be included in the ongoing process of emancipation and transformation for social change. This contemporary approach to anarchism remains committed to anti-capitalist and anti-authoritarian protest, resistance, and direct action, while embracing alternative and inclusive forms of organizing. Anarchists now envision advancing a society based on principles of collective liberation, mutual aid, self-determination, and uprooting dominator culture.

Note: The term "collective liberation" was coined by bell hooks in her book Outlaw Culture (1994). The term "dominator culture" was coined by Riane Eisler in her book The Chalice and the Blade (1987). The term "intersectionality" was coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw in her essay Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex (1989).